Genetics | Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology

⇒	Genetics : A study of heredity and variation
⇒	Sexuality : A source of hereditary variation
⇒	Ideas on heredity : A brief history
	⇒	Ideas of Hippocrates and Aristotle
	⇒	Preformation and epigenesist
	⇒	Pangenes and acquired characters
	⇒	Germplasm theory
	⇒	Phenocopies
⇒	Scope and significance of genetics
	⇒	Transmission genetics or classical genetics
	⇒	Behavioural genetics
	⇒	Developmental genetics
	⇒	Forward genetics vs. reverse genetics

Mendel's Laws of Inheritance

⇒	Gregor Mendel's life
⇒	Pre-Mendelian experiments
⇒	Mendel's experiments
⇒	Symbols and terminology
⇒	Principle of segregation (law of purity of gametes)
⇒	Principle of independent assortment
⇒	Mendel's results, chromosome theory and linkage (present status)
⇒	Molecular basis of Mendel's wrinkled seed character
⇒	The rules of probability (product rule and sum rule)
⇒	Mendelian genetics in humans
⇒	Deviations from Mendel's finding

Lethality and Interaction of Genes

⇒	Lethality
⇒	Interaction of genes
	⇒	Abbreviated genotypic ratio
	⇒	Two gene pairs affecting same character
	⇒	Epistasis
	⇒	Complementary genes
	⇒	Duplicate genes
⇒	Additional interactions involving two gene pairs
⇒	Interactions between more than two gene pairs
⇒	Modifiers, suppressors and pleiotropic genes
⇒	Meiotic drive, segregation distortion and selfish genes
⇒	Penetrance and expressivity

Quantitative Inheritance

⇒	Multiple factors
⇒	Binomial distribution
⇒	Effect of degree of dominance, number of genes and environment
⇒	Quantifying variability
	⇒	Variance and standard deviation
	⇒	Partitioning of phenotypic variance
	⇒	Heritability in broad sense and narrow sense

Multiple Alleles (Based on Classical Concept of Allelomorphism)

⇒	Multiple alleles and isoalleles
	⇒	Colour loci in corn
	⇒	Skin colour in rodents
	⇒	Eye colour in Drosophila
	⇒	Self sterility in Nicotiana
	⇒	ABO blood groups in humans

Physical Basis of Heredity 1. The Nucleus and the Chromosome

⇒	The Nucleus
	⇒	Significance of nucleus : Hammerling's experiment
	⇒	Number, shape and size of nucleus
	⇒	Nucleus in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
	⇒	Nuclear envelope
	⇒	Nuclear pore complex and nucleocytoplasmic traffic
	⇒	Nucleolus
⇒	Chromosomes
⇒	Number, size and shape of chromosomes
⇒	Morphology of chromosomes
⇒	Karyotypes
⇒	Euchromatin and heterochromatin
⇒	Constitutive and facultative heterochromatin
⇒	Single-stranded and multi-stranded hypotheses for chromosomes
⇒	Chemical composition of chromosomes
⇒	Infrastructure of chromosomes
⇒	Function of chromosomes
⇒	Special types of chromosomes
⇒	Lampbrush chromosomes
⇒	Salivary gland chromosomes
⇒	B-Chromosomes
⇒	Prokaryotic Nucleoids

Physical Basis of Heredity 2. Cell Division (Mitosis and Meiosis)

⇒	Mitosis
⇒	Prophase
⇒	Metaphase
⇒	Anaphase
⇒	Telophase
⇒	Cytokinesis
⇒	Meiosis
⇒	Significance of meiosis
⇒	Reproductive cycles
⇒	Stages of meiosis
⇒	Synaptonemal complex
⇒	Recombination nodules
⇒	Comparison of meiosis and mitosis

Physical Basis of Heredity 3. Genetics, Biochemistry and Dynamics of Cell Division

⇒	Genetics of cell division cycle
⇒	Biochemistry of cell division
⇒	Biochemistry of mitosis
⇒	Biochemistry of meiosis
⇒	Dynamics of chromosome movements during cell division
⇒	Events involving chromosome movement
⇒	Kinetochore and spindle in chromosome movement
⇒	Basic questions about kinetochore function

Physical Basis of Heredity 4. The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

⇒	Association of paternal and maternal chromosomes at meiosis
⇒	Qualitative differences between chromosomes
⇒	Formulation of chromosome theory
⇒	Sex chromosomes and chromosome theory

Linkage and Crossing Over in Diploid Organisms (Higher Eukaryotes)

⇒	Coupling and repulsion hypothesis
⇒	A testcross in maize
⇒	Crossing over and meiosis
	⇒	Crossing over and chiasma formation
	⇒	Mechanism of genetic recombination
⇒	Crossing over and linkage maps
	⇒	Recombination frequencies from a test-cross
	⇒	Recombination frequencies from F₂ data
	⇒	Interference and coincidence
	⇒	Linkage maps
⇒	Mapping function and poisson distribution
⇒	Linkage groups
⇒	Chi-square test
⇒	Cytological basis of crossing over
⇒	Creighton and McClintock's experiment in corn
⇒	Meselson and Weigle's experiment using lambda (λ) phage
⇒	Crossing over at four strand stage

Tetrad Analysis, Mitotic Recombination and Gene Conversion in Haploid Organisms (Fungi and Single Celled Algae)

⇒	Tetrad analysis
	⇒	Analysis of ordered tetrads
	⇒	Analysis of unordered tetrads
⇒	Mitotic recombination and parasexual cycle in Aspergillus
⇒	Gene conversion.

Sexuality and Recombination in Bacteria and Viruses

⇒	Three Methods for Transfer of Genetic Material
⇒	Sexual conjugation in bacteria
	⇒	Culture media and mutant strains
	⇒	Discovery of gene transfer
	⇒	Discovery of linkage in bacteria
	⇒	Donor and recipient strains
		-	Mechanism of chromosome transfer
		-	Physical structures involved in chromosome transfer
⇒	Linkage maps in bacteria
	⇒	Conjugation mapping through interrupted mapping
	⇒	Circular linkage map
	⇒	Linkage information from transformation
	⇒	Recombination after gene transfer
⇒	High resolution mapping
	⇒	Linear order of genes
⇒	Replication and recombination in viruses
	⇒	Replication of bacteriophages
	⇒	Lysogenic bacteria
	⇒	Transduction
	⇒	Recombination in viruses
	⇒	Circular genetic maps in viruses

Molecular Mechanisms of Recombination

⇒	Hybrid DNA models involving single strand breaks
⇒	Hybrid DNA models involving double strand breaks
⇒	Mismatch repair and post-meiotic segregation (pms) in heteroduplex region
⇒	Enzymes and proteins involved in recombination

Fine Structure of Gene-at the Genetic Level (A New Concept of Allelomorphism)

⇒	Gene vs allele : A new concept of allelomorphism
⇒	Fine structure of gene (lozenge in Drosophila, rII in T4 phage)
⇒	Cistron, recon and muton

Plasmids, IS Elements, Transposons and Retroelements

⇒	Plasmids
	⇒	Classification of plasmids
	⇒	Replication, transfer and recombination in plasmids
⇒	Insertion sequences or IS elements
⇒	Transposons and controlling elements
	⇒	Transposons in prokaryotes
	⇒	Transposons in eukaryotes
⇒	Retrolelements (viral and non-viral)
⇒	Mechanism of Transposition
⇒	Uses of Transposons

Sex Linked, Sex Influenced and Sex Limited Traits

⇒	Sex linked traits
	⇒	Sex linkage in Drosophila
	⇒	Sex linked lethals in Drosophila
	⇒	Sex linkage in human beings
	⇒	Sex linkage in poultry
⇒	Non-disjunction of sex chromosomes in Drosophila
⇒	Sex Influenced Traits (horned character in sheep)
⇒	Sex Limited Traits (cock feathering in poultry and baldness in man).

Sex Determination, Sex Differentiation, Dosage Compensation and Genetic Imprinting

⇒	Chromosome Theory of Sex Determination
⇒	Balance Theory of Sex Determination X/A ratio in Drosophila
	⇒	Triploid intersexes in Drosophila and genie balance theory
	⇒	X/A ratio and gynandromorphs in Drosophila
	⇒	X/A ratio in Coenorhabditis elegans (a free living nematode)
	⇒	Balance Between Male and Female Factors
		-	Diploid intersexes in gypsy moth (Lymantria)
		-	X/A ratio and multiple numerator elements (Drosophila and Coenorhabditis)
⇒	Sex Determination in Plants
	⇒	Methods for determining heterogametic sex in plants
	⇒	Sex determination in Coccinia and Melandrium
	⇒	Sex determination in other dioecious plants
	⇒	Sex Chromosomes in Mammals Including Humans (Homo sapiens)
	⇒	TDF, ZFY and SRY genes in humans
	⇒	H-Y antigen and male development in mammals
⇒	Single gene control of sex
	⇒	Sex determination in Asparagus
	⇒	Tassel seed (ts) and silkless (sk) genes in maize
	⇒	Transformer gene (tra)in Drosophila
⇒	Haploid males in Hymenoptera
⇒	Hormonal control of sex
⇒	Environmental Sex Determination in Reptiles
⇒	Dosage Compensation in Organisms with Heterogametic Males
	⇒	X-chromosome inactivation in mammals
	⇒	Position effect variegation
	⇒	Hyperactivity of X-chromosome in male Drosophila
⇒	Lack of Dosage Compensation in Organisms with Heterogametic Females
⇒	Genetic imprinting

Maternal Effects and Cytoplasmic Inheritance

⇒	Maternal effects
⇒	Cytoplasmic Inheritance Involving Dispensable Hereditary Units
	⇒	Kappa particles in Paramecium
	⇒	CO₂ Sensitivity in Drosophila (sigma factor)
⇒	Organellar genetics
	⇒	Plastid inheritance : variegation in plants
	⇒	Male sterility in plants
	⇒	Chloroplast genetics Non-chromosomal genes in Chlamydomonas
	⇒	Mitochondrial genetics
	⇒	Paternal inheritance of cpDNA and mtDNA

Structural Changes in Chromosomes

⇒	Deficiencies
⇒	Duplications
⇒	Translocations
⇒	Inversions

Numerical Changes in Chromosomes

⇒	Aneuploidy
	⇒	Monosomy
	⇒	Nullisomy
	⇒	Trisomy
	⇒	Tetrasomy
⇒	Euploidy
	⇒	Monoploidy and haploidy
	⇒	Polyploidy

Mutations : 1. Morphological Level (Including Lethal Mutations)

⇒	Brief History
⇒	Range of Mutations
⇒	Stages of Which Mutations Occur
⇒	Types of Mutations
⇒	Spontaneous Vs Induced Mutations
⇒	Mutation Rates and Frequencies
⇒	Induced Mutations
⇒	Detection of Mutations in Drosophila
⇒	Detection of Mutations in Plants
⇒	Use of Microbial Systems to Assess Potency of Mutagens
⇒	Practical Applications of Mutations
⇒	Effect of Genotypes on Induction of Mutations (Mutator Gene and Paramutations)
⇒	Adaptive Mutations and Genotrophs

Mutations : 2. Biochemical Level (Biochemical and Microbial Genetics)

⇒	Inborn errors of metabolism in man
⇒	Eye transplantation in Drosophila
⇒	Biochemical mutations in Neurospora
⇒	Mutations in E. coli for resistance against phages or antibiotics
⇒	Cell counting in suspension
⇒	Calculation of mutation rates and frequencies
⇒	Biochemical mutations and biosynthetic pathways
⇒	Gene sequences and enzyme sequences in biosynthetic pathways

Mutations: 3. Molecular Level (Mechanism)

⇒	Mutations and nucleotide sequences in nucleic acid
	⇒	Effect of chemical mutagens on nucleotide sequence
	⇒	Effect of dyes on nucleotide sequence
	⇒	Effect of physical conditions on nucleotide sequence
	⇒	Effect of radiations on nucleotide sequence
	⇒	Spontaneous mutations and nucleotide sequence
⇒	Mutation and amino acid sequences in proteins (including colinearity hypothesis)
⇒	Suppressor mutations, tRNAs and ribosomes

Human Genetics

⇒	Human chromosomes
⇒	Determination of sex
⇒	Sex linked inheritance
⇒	Chromosomal aberrations
⇒	Dizygotic and monozygotic twins
⇒	Inborn errors in metabolism
⇒	Sickle-cell anaemia
⇒	Genetic analysis through pedigree charts
⇒	Chromosome mapping in humans (including RFLPs, etc.)
⇒	Gene transfer in mammalian cells
	⇒	Chromosome mediated gene transfer
	⇒	Transformation of cells with free DNA
⇒	Use of human genetics in medical science
	⇒	Genetic counseling
	⇒	Amniocentesis and antenatal diagnosis
	⇒	Gene therapy
	⇒	Making a choice of baby's sex
	⇒	DNA fingerprinting in forensic science

Chemistry of the Gene 1. Nucleic Acids and Their Structure

⇒	Nucleic acids as genetic material
	⇒	Transformation experiments
	⇒	Experiments with bacteriophage (T2) infection
	⇒	Experiments with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
⇒	Structure of nucleic acids
	⇒	Bases
	⇒	Nucleosides
	⇒	Nucleotides
	⇒	Polynucleotide
	⇒	Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
	⇒	Alternative forms of DNA double helices
	⇒	Z-DNA, a left handed DNA form
	⇒	RL model
	⇒	Supercoils in closed DNA
	⇒	Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Chemistry of the Gene 2. Synthesis, Modification and Repair of DNA

⇒	DNA replication: general features
	⇒	Semi-conservative DNA replication in E. coli
	⇒	Semi-conservative replication of chromosomes in eukaryotes
	⇒	Semi-discontinuous DNA replication
	⇒	Unidirectional and bidirectional DNA replication
	⇒	RNA primers in DNA replication
	⇒	Regulation of DNA replication by anti-sense RNA primer
	⇒	Prokaryotic DNA polymerases
	⇒	Eukaryotic DNA polymerases
	⇒	Replicons for DNA replication
⇒	DNA replication in prokaryotes
	⇒	Experimental approaches for the study of DNA replication
	⇒	Initiation of DNA replication
	⇒	Elongation of DNA chain
	⇒	Replication fork movement
	⇒	Termination of DNA replication
⇒	DNA replication in eukaryotes
	⇒	DNA replication and cell cycle
	⇒	Replication origins and initiation of DNA replication (cis and trans-acting elements)
	⇒	Comparison of initiation of DNA replication with transcription initiation
	⇒	Different steps involved in eukaryotic DNA replication
	⇒	Synthesis of telomeric DNA by telomerase
⇒	Models of DNA replication
	⇒	Replication fork model
	⇒	Rolling circle model of DNA replication
	⇒	Mitochondrial DNA replication and D-loops
⇒	RNA directed DNA synthesis (reverse transcription)
⇒	DNA modification and DNA restriction
⇒	DNA repair
	⇒	Excision repair systems in E. coli
	⇒	An SOS repair system in E. coli
	⇒	DNA repair and genetic diseases in humans

Organization of Genetic Material 1. Packaging of DNA as Nucleosomes in Eukaryotes

⇒	Techniques leading to nucleosome discovery
⇒	Subunit of chromatin - the nucleosome
⇒	Spatial arrangement of histones
⇒	Relation between different nucleosomes
⇒	Solenoid model
⇒	Loops, domains and scaffolds in chromatin
⇒	Chromatin replication and nucleosome assembly
⇒	Phasing and modification of nucleosomes in active genes

Organization of Genetic Material 2. Repetitive and Unique DNA Sequences

⇒	Chromosomal DNA content and C-value paradox
⇒	Repetitive DNA
	⇒	Technique for detecting repetitive DNA
	⇒	Chemical complexity vs sequence (kinetic) complexity
	⇒	Repetitive DNA in the form of satellite DNA
	⇒	Squash dot hybridization
⇒	Selfish DNA

Organization of Genetic Material 3. Split Genes, Overlapping Genes and Pseudogenes

⇒	Split genes or interrupted genes
	⇒	Discovery and nature of split genes
	⇒	R-loop mapping and restriction mapping of interrupted genes
	⇒	Structure of chicken ovalbumin split gene
	⇒	Split genes in fungal mitochondria
	⇒	Split genes in chloroplasts
	⇒	Intron of one gene may contain exon of another gene
	⇒	Exon sequences are conserved, but intron sequences vary
	⇒	Introns with coding sequences
⇒	Overlapping genes
⇒	Pseudogenes
⇒	Promiscuous DNA

The Genetic Code

⇒	Properties of genetic code
⇒	Chain initiation and chain termination codons
⇒	Synonym codons and degeneracy
⇒	Mutations and the genetic code
⇒	Wobble hypothesis
⇒	New genetic codes in mitochondria and ciliate protozoa
⇒	Suppressor mutations, base substitutions and suppressor tRNAs
⇒	Second genetic code, and second half of the genetic code
⇒	Recoding of the genetic code

Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 1. Proteins and Protein Synthesis Apparatus (tRNA and Ribosomes)

⇒	Protein structure
	⇒	Primary structure of proteins
	⇒	Secondary structure of proteins
	⇒	Tertiary structure of proteins and 'second half of the genetic code'
	⇒	Quaternary structure of proteins
⇒	Protein synthesis apparatus
	⇒	Structure of tRNAs
	⇒	Structure of ribosomes

Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 2. Transcription in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

⇒	Transcription in prokaryotes
	⇒	Single RNA polymerase in E. coli
	⇒	Promoter sites for initiation of transcription in prokaryotes
	⇒	Initiation and elongation of RNA synthesis in prokaryotes
	⇒	'Inchworm model' for elongation of transcript
	⇒	Elongation arrest vs termination of transcription
	⇒	Termination and antitermination of mRNA synthesis in prokaryotes
⇒	Transcription in eukaryotes
	⇒	Multiple RNA polymerases in eukaryotes
	⇒	Promoter, enhancer and silencer sites for initiation of transcription in eukaryotes
	⇒	Transcription factors and initiation of RNA synthesis in eukaryotes
	⇒	Formation of preinitiation (transcription) complex with RNA polymerase II (Pol II)
	⇒	Structure and role of TFIID and other transcription factors (TBP, TAFs)
	⇒	TFIIB domains for interaction with TFIID/TATA complex
	⇒	Phosphorylation of CTD of a subunit of Pol II
	⇒	Formation of pre-initiation complex with Pol I and Pol III
	⇒	Separate DNA binding and transcription activation domains
	⇒	Transcription factors and elongation of RNA chains in eukaryotes
⇒	Chromatin structure and transcription
⇒	Transcription in mitochondria
	⇒	Transcription of vertebrate mtDNA
	⇒	Transcription of yeast and plant mtDNA
⇒	Transcription in chloroplasts

Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 3. RNA Processing (RNA Splicing, RNA Editing and Ribozymes)

⇒	Addition of caps (m⁷G) and tails (polyA) for mRNA
	⇒	Addition of methylated cap at the 5' end
	⇒	Polyadenylation and the generation of 3' end
⇒	RNA splicing
	⇒	Self-splicing of group I introns
	⇒	Splicing of group II introns
	⇒	Splicing of eukaryotic hnRNA through spliceosomes/snurposomes
	⇒	Splicing of introns using RNA maturases or endonucleases
	⇒	Yeast tRNA splicing by cutting and rejoining
	⇒	Trans-splicing of transcripts in chloroplasts and mitochondria
	⇒	Constitutive vs. alternative Splicing
	⇒	RNA Editing and Guide RNA
⇒	Ribozymes

Expression of Gene : Protein Synthesis 4. Translation in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

⇒	Formation of amino-acyl tRNA
⇒	Initiation of polypeptide
	⇒	Initiation in prokaryotes
	⇒	Initiation in eukaryotes
⇒	Kozak's scanning hypothesis
⇒	Elongation of polypeptide
	⇒	Binding of AA-tRNA at site 'A' of ribosome
	⇒	Formation of peptide bond
	⇒	Translocation of peptidyl tRNA from 'A' to 'P' site
⇒	Termination of polypeptide
⇒	Modification, folding and transport of released polypeptide
⇒	Translation in chloroplasts and mitochondria

Regulation of Gene Expression 1. Operon Circuits in Bacteria and other Prokaryotes

⇒	Induction and repression
⇒	Inducer and co-repressor
⇒	The operon model for transcriptional regulation
	⇒	The tryptophan operon in bacteria (E. coli and Salmonella)
	⇒	Tryptophan (trp) repressor controls three sets of genes
	⇒	Negative and Positive Controls of Transcription
	⇒	Substitution of Sigma Factor and Control of Transcription
	⇒	Multiple sigma factors in E. coli
	⇒	Sporulation in bacteria
⇒	DNA sequences controlling transcription
	⇒	DNA sequences for CAP, RNA polymerase and lac-repressor
	⇒	Identification of starting point
	⇒	Pribnow box and other sequences common to DNA regions upstream to several operons
⇒	Regulation by DNA rearrangements
⇒	Post-transcriptional regulation
	⇒	Leader sequences and attenuators
	⇒	Autogenous regulation of translation
	⇒	Regulation by alternative splicing
	⇒	Regulation by-anti-sense RNA
	⇒	Repression and activation of translation
	⇒	Feedback inhibition
⇒	Signal transduction and ‘two component regulatory system’

Regulation of Gene Expression 2. Cricuit of Lytic Cycle and Lysogeny in Bacteriophages

⇒	Regulation by a cascade in phages
⇒	Alternative sigma factors in phage SPO1
⇒	Lytic cascade in lambda (λ) phage
⇒	DNA binding of Cro and λ repressor proteins
⇒	Functional grouping of genes in phages T4 and T7

Regulation of Gene Expression 3. A Variety of Mechanisms in Eukaryotes

⇒	Regulation at Transcription Level
	⇒	Activation of transcription
	⇒	Britten-Davidson model for unit of transcription
	⇒	Gene battery
	⇒	Chromosomal proteins and gene expression
⇒	Repression of transcription
	⇒	Specific DNA sequences controlling transcription
	⇒	Transgenic plants to study regulatory sequences
	⇒	Modification of DNA sequences and their transcripts in gene expression
	⇒	Alternative splicing of transcripts
⇒	Regulation at translation level
	⇒	Activation and repression of translation
	⇒	Masked mRNA in eggs of sea urchin and Xenopus
⇒	Regulation by gene re-arrangement
	⇒	Expression of immunoglobulin genes
	⇒	Yeast mating type switching
	⇒	Trypanosome surface antigen (VSG) switching
	⇒	Synthesis of mRNA in pieces in VSG genes in trypanosome
⇒	Regulation by reversible phosphorylation
⇒	Signal transduction and second messengers
	⇒	Proteins and peptide hormonesand gene expression
	⇒	Steroid hormones and gene expression
	⇒	Interferon stimulated gene expression (without a second messenger)
	⇒	Cell surface receptors in cholesterol metabolism and drug production
	⇒	Ubiquitin protein and regulation of heat shock genes

Developmental Genetics

⇒	Factors controlling development
	⇒	Changes in the Nucleus During Development (Nuclear Transplantation)
⇒	Turning genes on and off during development
	⇒	Gene regulation during early embryonic development
⇒	The Genetics of Development
	⇒	Developmental mutants in Drosophila
	⇒	Developmental mutants in higher plants

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 1. Recombinant DNA and PCR (Cloning and Amplification of DNA)

⇒	Restriction enzymes in cloning
⇒	Techniques used in recombinant DNA
⇒	Cloning vectors for recombinant DNA
	⇒	Plasmids as vectors
	⇒	Bacteriophages as vectors
	⇒	Plant and animal viruses as vectors
	⇒	Transposons as vectors
	⇒	Artificial chromosome vectors for cloning large DNA segments
⇒	Construction of chimeric DNA
	⇒	Palindromes and staggered cleavage
	⇒	Adding poly dA at the 3' ends of the vector and poly dT at the 3' ends of DNA clone
	⇒	Blunt end ligation by T4 DNA ligase
⇒	Cloning in bacteria and eukaryotes
	⇒	Cloning in bacteria
	⇒	Cloning in eukaryotes
⇒	Molecular probes
	⇒	Labelling of probes
	⇒	Applications of molecular probes
⇒	Construction and screening of genomic and cDNA libraries
⇒	Gene amplification : PCR and its applications
	⇒	cDNA library from mRNA
	⇒	Colony (or plaque) hybridization for screening of libraries
	⇒	Gene Amplification : PCR and Its Applications
	⇒	The basic polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
	⇒	Different schemes of PCR

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 2. Restriction Maps and Molecular Genetic Maps

⇒	Restriction mapping
	⇒	Restriction cleavage and gel electrophoresis
	⇒	Construction of a restriction map
	⇒	Use of partial digests, end labeling and hybridization in restriction mapping
⇒	Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) as markers for genetic maps
⇒	Linkage and recombination between molecular and phenotypic markers
⇒	Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs) using PCR
	⇒	Minisatellites (VNTRs) and Microsatellites (SSRs)
⇒	Chromosome Walking and Characterization of Chromosome Segments
⇒	Reverse Genetics and Chromosome Jumping (or Hopping) Libraries

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 3. Isolation, Sequencing and Synthesis of Genes

⇒	Isolation of genes
	⇒	Early attempts for isolation of ribosomal RNA genes in Xenopus
	⇒	Isolation of genes coding for known specific proteins
	⇒	Isolation of genes coding for an unknown product
⇒	Sequencing of genes or a DNA segment
	⇒	Maxam and Gilbert's chemical degradation method
⇒	Synthesis of genes
	⇒	Chemical synthesis of genes
	⇒	Synthesis of gene for yeast alanyl tRNA
	⇒	Synthesis of gene for a true precursor tRNA
	⇒	Gene synthesis machines

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 4. Gene Transfer Methods and Transgenic Organisms

⇒	Gene transfer methods
	⇒	Gene transfer (transfection) methods in animals
	⇒	Gene transfer methods in plants
⇒	Transgenic Organisms
	⇒	Transgenic animals
	⇒	Transgenic plants

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 5. Hybridoma and Monoclonal Antibodies

⇒	Hybridoma and the production of monoclonal antibodies
	⇒	Improvements in hybridoma technology
	⇒	Purification of antibodies
	⇒	Antibody Engineering and Genetic Manipulations
⇒	Alternatives to hybridoma for monoclonal antibodies
⇒	Production of human and humanized antibodies
⇒	Uses of monoclonal antibodies
	⇒	Monoclonal antibodies in diagnosis, screening and therapy
	⇒	Vaccine production and monoclonal antibodies
	⇒	Monoclonal antibodies as enzymes (abzymes)
	⇒	Purification and quantitation of other molecules

Multigene Families in Eukaryotes

⇒	How is the demand for large quantities of gene product met?
⇒	Multigene families
	⇒	How to locate multigene families?
	⇒	Multigene families with identical genes
⇒	Concerted evolution of multigene families
	⇒	Gene conversion
	⇒	Sister chromatid exchange
	⇒	Gene amplification

Genetics of Cancer : Proto-oncogenes, Oncogenes and Tumour Suppressor Genes

⇒	Viral oncogenes (y-onc genes)
⇒	Isolated oncogenes for transfection assay
⇒	Activation of proto-oncogenes by mutation
⇒	Activation of proto-oncogenes by insertions, translocations and amplification
⇒	Tumour suppressor genes or anti-oncogenes
⇒	Cellular functions of oncoproteins
⇒	Regulation of gene expression by oncoproteins
⇒	Signal transduction by oncoproteins (G proteins)

Population Genetics : Gene Frequencies in Populations

⇒	Gene pool and gene frequencies
⇒	Equilibrium of gene frequencies and Hardy-Weinberg
	⇒	Frequencies of two alleles at a single locus
	⇒	Frequencies of more than two alleles at a single locus
	⇒	Frequencies of alleles at two or more loci
⇒	Changes in gene frequencies
	⇒	Mutations
	⇒	Selection
	⇒	Balance between mutation and selection
	⇒	Migration
	⇒	Random drift

Inbreeding Depression and Heterosis

⇒	Inbreeding depression
⇒	Heterosis
⇒	Genetic basis of inbreeding depression and heterosis
⇒	Application of heterosis

Genetic Basis of Evolution and Speciation

⇒	Theories of organic evolution
	⇒	Mutation theory
	⇒	Synthetic theory
⇒	Evolution at molecular level
	⇒	Evolution of proteins
	⇒	Evolution of nucleotide sequences
	⇒	Molecular evolution in test tube
⇒	Speciation
	⇒	Races
	⇒	Species
	⇒	Modes of speciation





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